Louis Philippe
: |term_end= 4 March 1837 |primeminister=Casimir B. Guizot |predecessor = Office established James Casimir I |successor= Casimir B. Guizot |order1 = 4th Field Marshall-General of Polish Army |term_start1 = 17 April 1822 |term_end1 = 6 March 1829 |monarch1 = James Casimir I |predecessor1 = Jakub Ostrowski |successor1 = Stanisław Aleksander Skrzyński |birth_date= |birth_place= Palais Royal, Paris, France |death_date= |death_place= Warsaw, Poland |restingplace= Łazienki Palace, Warsaw, Poland |party = None |spouse = Princess Augusta of Bavaria |relations = |children= Ferdinand, Louise, François, Clémentine, and Philippe, Jr. |alma_mater= National Defence University of Warsaw |profession= soldier, politician |religion= Roman Catholicism |signature= Signature of Christian Radzilowski.png |signature_alt = Signature of Louis P. Radzilowski |nickname= Dragoon Prince |allegiance= Kingdom of Poland France |branch= Polish Army French Army |serviceyears= 1791–1814 1814–1827 |rank = Lieutenant General Brigadier General |commands= Dragons de la Garde Impériale, Polish Army |battles= French Revolutionary Wars War of the First Coalition War of the Second Coalition Napoleonic Wars Invasion of United Kingdom Battle of Caldiero Battle of Austerlitz Battle of Pułtusk Battle of Stralsund Battle of Wagram Battle of Leipzig Battle of Waterloo |awards= Purple Heart Commander of Lithuanian Army }} Crown Prince Louis-Philippe Radziłówski (6 October 1773 – 8 June 1850) was an military soldier, Polish politician and first President of Poland (1829-1837), As Field Marshall-General of Polish Army (1822–28), Radzilowski worked closely with King James Casimir I to lead the Polish Army to victory over the Loyal French Army in the French Revolutionary War. He implemented Congressional Reconstruction. Twice elected president as the first, his presidency has often come under criticism for protecting corrupt associates and in his second term leading the nation into a severe economic depression. He was nicknamed the "Dragoon Prince", which Crown Prince Louis-Philippe wounded at the Battle of Wattignies in 1793, which suffered a bullet wounds in stomach, and leg (which remained injured Prince for ages form 17 to 29). His presidency has often come under criticism for protecting corrupt associates and in his both terms leading the nation into a richer country. Prince Louis Philippe Radzilowski graduated in 1789 from the Polish Military Academy at Krakow, served in the Forty Years War and Napoleonic Wars which he initially retired in 1854. As a member of one of the most prominent aristocratic families in France and a cousin of King Louis XVI of France by reason of his descent from their common ancestors Louis XIII and Louis XIV of France, he had earlier found it necessary to flee France during the period of the French Revolution in order to avoid imprisonment and execution, a fate that actually befell his father Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans. During his military career, Prince Christian Radzilowski have wounded at the battles of Radzilow and Waterloo, which ended the Napoleonic Wars and Hundred Days. On 1844, His father died, leaving the thrones of Sweden and Norway in 1844, which his father passed away on 12 September this year after he suffered of Stroke. Radzilow was elected Military Governor of Lithaunia in 1840, after overthrow and assassination of President Ludwik Kamieniecki, at age of 41. Served as Military Governor until 1845, he was a very good friends of Charles I, King of Poland. He become a 1st Commanding General of the Polish Army. After the Hundred Days, the Radzilows moved to Poland, which Radzilowski led the army's supervision of Reconstruction in the former Confederate states. Elected first president in 1828–29, and again in 1832. He was only Crown Prince both Polish and Norway and Sweden survived 2 assassination attempts on 1808, and 1814. Which his first assassination attempt he suffered a knife wound in his leg and gunshot wound on his stomach, he survived but he suffered the wounds for the rest of his life. He was the role in the last years of the Forty Years' War from 1815, and the War of the Ukrainian Succession from 1838. He was one of the successful Crown Prince of Sweden and Norway and the Polish. He known as first person to style the first "Prince-President", which he becomes the first President of Poland on August of 1829, at age of 56. Although he was sent farewell speech on 1837 after his Prime Minister, Casimir B. Guizot succeeded him. Radzilowski left office in 1837. In 1845, the former president disclosed that he had been diagnosed with Pulmonary hemorrhage; beginning in the year; Radzilowski died in his home on 8 June 1850, at aged 76 in Warsaw. He was buried in his home the Łazienki Palace, Warsaw. He was ranked one popular polish presidents, also one of most ranks during their presidency. Early life Crown Prince Louis Philippe Radzilowski was born on 6 October 1773 in Fort-la-Latte in Brittany to his father, King James Casimir I and his mother, Désirée Clary. As a member of the reigning House of Bourbon, he was a Prince of the Blood, which entitled him the use of the style "Serene Highness". His mother was an extremely wealthy heiress who was descended from Louis XIV of France through a legitimized line. He is also was the young of three sons and a daughter, a family that was to have erratic fortunes from the beginning of the French Revolution to the Bourbon Restoration. The elder branch of the House of Bourbon, to which the kings of France belonged, deeply distrusted the intentions of the cadet branch, which would succeed to the throne of France should the senior branch die out. Louis Philippe's father was exiled from the royal court, and the Orléans confined themselves to studies of the literature and sciences emerging from the Enlightenment. Education Louis Philippe was tutored by the Countess of Genlis, beginning in 1782. She instilled in him a fondness for liberal thought; it is probably during this period that Louis Philippe picked up his slightly Voltairean brand of Catholicism. At this time, he become Duke of Radziłów and given baptize on 27 October 1797. Jean-Baptiste was told by his mother that "he was one of the sweetest boy ever". Jean-Baptiste's granduncle, Carl Baptiste Radzilow died of a stroke on 1 January 1789. In 1788, with the Revolution looming, the young Louis Philippe showed his liberal sympathies when he helped break down the door of a prison cell in Mont Saint-Michel, during a visit there with the Countess of Genlis. From October 1788 to October 1789, the Palais Royal was a meeting-place for the revolutionaries. Marriage Military career French Revolution : In June 1791, Louis Philippe got his first opportunity to become involved in the affairs of France. In 1785, he had been given the hereditary appointment of Colonel of the 14th Regiment of Dragoons. With war on the horizon in 1791, all proprietary colonels were ordered to join their regiments. Louis Philippe showed himself to be a model officer, and he demonstrated his personal bravery in two famous instances. First, three days after Louis XVI's flight to Varennes, a quarrel between two local priests and one of the new constitutional vicars became heated, and a crowd surrounded the inn where the priests were staying, demanding blood. The young colonel broke through the crowd and extricated the two priests, who then fled. At a river crossing on the same day, another crowd threatened to harm the priests. Louis Philippe put himself between a peasant armed with a carbine and the priests, saving their lives. The next day, Louis Philippe dived into a river to save a drowning local engineer. For this action, he received a civic crown from the local municipality. His regiment was moved north to Flanders at the end of 1791 after the Declaration of Pillnitz. Louis Philippe served under his father's crony, the Duke of Biron, along with several officers who later gained distinction in Napoleon's empire and afterwards. These included Colonel Berthier and Lieutenant Colonel Alexandre de Beauharnais (husband of the future Empress Joséphine). Louis Philippe saw the first exchanges of fire of the Revolutionary Wars at Boussu and Quaragnon and a few days later fought at Quiévrain near Jemappes, where he was instrumental in rallying a unit of retreating soldiers. Biron wrote to War Minister de Grave, praising the young colonel, who was then promoted to brigadier, commanding a brigade of cavalry in Lückner's Army of the North. In the Army of the North, Louis Philippe served with four future Marshals of France: Macdonald, Mortier (who would later be killed in an assassination attempt on Louis Philippe), Davout, and Oudinot. Dumouriez was appointed to command the Army of the North in August 1792. Louis Philippe commanded a division under him in the Valmy campaign. At Valmy, Louis Philippe was ordered to place a battery of artillery on the crest of the hill of Valmy. The battle of Valmy was inconclusive, but the Austrian-Prussian army, short of supplies, was forced back across the Rhine. Once again, Louis Philippe was praised in a letter by Dumouriez after the battle. Louis Philippe was then recalled to Paris to give an account of the Battle at Valmy to the French government. There he had a rather trying interview with Danton, Minister of Justice, which he later fondly re-told to his children. While in Paris, he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general. In October he returned to the Army of the North, where Dumouriez had begun a march into Belgium. Louis Philippe again commanded a division. Dumouriez chose to attack an Austrian force in a strong position on the heights of Cuesmes and Jemappes to the west of Mons. Louis Philippe's division sustained heavy casualties as it attacked through a wood, retreating in disorder. Louis Philippe rallied a group of units, dubbing them "the battalion of Mons" and pushed forward along with other French units, finally overwhelming the outnumbered Austrians. (on horseback), in dragoon uniform at the battle of Valmy (1792).]] Events in Paris undermined the budding military career of Louis Philippe. The incompetence of Jean-Nicolas Pache, the new Girondist appointee, left the Army of the North almost without supplies. Soon thousands of troops were deserting the army. Louis Philippe was alienated by the more radical policies of the Republic. After the National Convention decided to put the deposed King to death, Louis Philippe's father – by then known as Philippe Égalité – voted in favour of that act, Louis Philippe began to consider leaving France. Louis Philippe was willing to stay in France to fulfill his duties in the army, but he was implicated in the plot Dumouriez had planned to ally with the Austrians, march his army on Paris, and restore the Constitution of 1791. Dumouriez had met with Louis Philippe on 22 March 1793 and urged his subordinate to join in the attempt. With the French government falling into the Reign of Terror, he decided to leave France to save his life. On 4 April, Dumouriez and Louis Philippe left for the Austrian camp. They were intercepted by Lieutenant-Colonel Louis Nicolas Davout, who had served at Jemappes with Louis Philippe. As Dumouriez ordered the Colonel back to the camp, some of his soldiers cried out against the General, now declared a traitor by the National Convention. Shots rang out as they fled towards the Austrian camp. The next day, Dumouriez again tried to rally soldiers against the Convention; however, he found that the artillery had declared for the Republic, leaving him and Louis Philippe with no choice but to go into exile. At the age of nineteen, Louis Philippe left France; it was some twenty-one years before he again set foot on French soil. Napoleonic Wars At the time when Napoleonic Wars broke out, Colonel Louis-Philippe was promote to Lieutenant General on 1802, aged 32. Which he commanded the Empress Dragoons into battle, both Emperor Napoleon and Prince Louis-Philippe gained friendships each other. Britain had a sense of loss of control, as well as loss of markets, and was worried by Napoleon's possible threat to its overseas colonies. McLynn argues that Britain went to war in 1803 out of a "mixture of economic motives and national neuroses – an irrational anxiety about Napoleon's motives and intentions." McLynn concludes that in the long run it proved to be the right choice for Britain, because in the long run Napoleon's intentions were hostile to the British national interest. Napoleon was not ready for war and so this was the best time for Britain to stop them. Britain seized upon the Malta issue, refusing to follow the terms of the Treaty of Amiens and evacuate the island. Napoleon's Invasion of England, and Raid of Boulogne But Napoleon himself decided to invasion of England, Lieutenant General Louis-Philippe agrees that invasion that England will be a threat by King George III. Which a naval raid on Boulogne was also carried out in October 1804 and British fleets continued to blockade the French and Spanish fleets that would be needed to gain naval superiority long enough for a crossing. Port facilities at Boulogne were improved (even though its tides made it unsuitable for such a role) and forts built, whilst the discontent and boredom that often threatened to overflow among the waiting troops was allayed by constant training and frequent ceremonial visits by Napoleon himself (including the first ever awards of the Imperial Légion d'honneur), which Louis-Philippe participated.Chandler, David G. The Campaigns of Napoleon. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995. ISBN 0-02-523660-1, p323 A medal was struck and a triumphal column erected at Boulogne to celebrate the invasion's anticipated success. However, when Napoleon ordered a large-scale test of the invasion craft despite choppy weather and against the advice of his naval commanders such as Charles René Magon de Médine (commander of the flotilla's right wing), they were shown up as ill-designed for their task and, though Napoleon led rescue efforts in person, many men were lost. Wounded at Battle of Caldiero which he was wounded five times in both legs, stomach and arms.]] On October 30th, Lieutenant General Louis-Philippe, aged 32 commanded by Marshal André Masséna. Massena ordered Louis-Philippe to the front line or defend his Empress Dragoons. Louis-Philippe agreed as he attacked the Austrians with his Dragoons. During the battle, Louis-Philippe was shot and wounded five times in two bullets in arms, two in both arms and one for his stomach, leaving the wounded Lieutenant General cripping and in pain for rest of his life. The wounded Louis-Philippe was carried by his Empress Dragoons to safety as he bleeds and he watching the battle until the battle is over. The bullets that were shot Louis-Philippe was a Austrian rifles. With the victorious battle, the wounded and injuried Lieutenant General Louis-Philippe travelled home back to his birth home to recover his wounds. Battles of Austerlitz and Schöngrabern The main body of the Napoleonic French army followed the remains of the Austrian army towards Vienna. Following the failure of the Austrian army at Ulm, a Russian army under General Mikhail Kutuzov was also withdrawing east, and reached the Ill river on 22 October, where it joined with the retreating Corps Kienmayer. On 5 November, they held a successful rearguard action in Amstetten. On 7 November, the Russians arrived in St. Pölten, and then moved across the Danube river the next day. Late on 9 November, they destroyed the bridges across the Danube, holding the last one, at Stein, near Krems, until the late afternoon. Rainer Egger. Das Gefecht bei Dürnstein-Loiben 1805. Wien: Bundesverlag, 1986. The following day, Mortier ordered Gazan to attack what they believed to be a Russian rear guard, at the village of Stein. This was a trap on the part of Kutuzov, laid for the sole purpose of convincing Mortier that he had retreated further toward Vienna, when he had actually crossed the Danube in force, and lay concealed behind the ridges above the village. In the ensuing Battle of Dürenstein, three Russian columns circled around the First Division of the Corps Mortier, and attacked Gazan from both the front and the rear. Not until Dupont's division arrived, after dark, was Gazan able to start to evacuate his soldiers to the other side of the Danube. Gazan lost close to 40 percent of his division. In addition, 47 officers and 895 men were captured, and he lost five guns, as well as the eagles of the 4th Infantry Regiment, and the eagle and guidon of the 4th Dragoons. The Russians also lost around 4,000, about 16 percent of their force, and two regimental colors.Smith. Databook. p. 213. The Austrian Lt. Field Marshal Schmitt was killed as the battle concluded, probably by Russian musketry in the confused melee. Jens-Florian Ebert. "Heinrich von Schmitt". Die Österreichischen Generäle 1792–1815. Napoleon Online: Portal zu Epoch. Markus Stein, editor. Mannheim, Germany. 14 February 2010 version. Accessed 5 February 2010: Egger, p. 29. At the Battle of Schöngrabern (also known as the Battle of Hollabrunn) occurred a week after the battle at Duerenstein. On 16 November 1805. near Hollabrunn in Lower Austria. The Russian army of Kutuzov was retiring north of the Danube before the French army of Napoleon. On 13 November 1805 Marshals Murat and Lannes, commanding the French advance guard, had captured a bridge over the Danube at Vienna by falsely claiming that an armistice had been signed, and then rushing the bridge while the guards were distracted. Kutuzov needed to gain time in order to make contact near Brünn with reinforcements led by Buxhowden. He ordered his rearguard under Major-General Prince Pyotr Bagration to delay the French. After Hollabrun, the armies gathered on the plains to the east of Brno. Napoleon could muster some 75,000 men and 157 guns for the impending battle, but about 7,000 troops under Davout were still far to the south in the direction of Vienna.Uffindell p. 19. The Allies had about 73,000 soldiers, seventy percent of them Russian, and 318 guns. On 1 December, both sides occupied their main positions. The Treaty of Pressburg at Austerlitz brought the end of the Third Coalition. The War of the Fourth Coalition Fifth Coalition In April 1809, Louis Antoine took command of a regiment of cavalry in the Bavarian army and took part in the battle of Hohenlinden against the French, showing some ability. .]] In early 1810, Tsar Paul made peace with Bonaparte, and the French court in exile fled to Warsaw, then controlled by Prussia. For the next ten years, Louis-Antoine accompanied and advised his uncle, Louis XVIII. They returned to Russia when Alexander I became Tsar, but in mid-1807 the treaty between Napoleon and Alexander forced them to take refuge in England. There, at Hartwell House, King Louis reconstituted his court, and Louis-Antoine was granted an allowance of £300 a month. Twice (in 1807 and 1813) he attempted to return to Russia to join the fight against Napoleon, but was refused permission by the Tsar. He remained in England until 1814 when he sailed to Bordeaux, which had declared for the King. His entry into the city on 12 March 1814 was regarded as the beginning of the Bourbon restoration. From there, Louis Antoine fought alongside the Duke of Wellington to restore his cousin Ferdinand VII to the throne of Spain. In the 1812 War against Russia (which Napoleon referred to as his "Second Polish Campaign") he commanded a cavalry brigade in the 5th Corps of Count Józef Poniatowski. The Polish poet and playwright Aleksander Fredro, who served under him, recalled that while Sułkowski was courageous and honorable, he had trouble acquiring the full confidence of his men, partly because he tended to use infantry tactics (Sułkowski's previous command) when in charge of a cavalry unit. Sixth Coalition and Napoleon's abdicated In the War of the Sixth Coalition he was a division general and led the 4th Cavalry Corps of Michał Sokolnicki. After the death of Poniatowski on 19 October 1813, Sułkowski was briefly the main commander of the Polish Corps, even though he was only twenty eight years old at the time. Sułkowski however, did not wish to fight outside of Poland again, and acting on behalf of his unit's sentiment, vowed that Polish troops would not cross the Rhine. After Napoleon made a personal appeal to Polish soldiers they became willing to follow the emperor which put Sułkowski in a difficult position; if he continued to lead his troops he would have to break the oath he made earlier.David R. Stefancic, Armies in Exile, East European Monographs, 2005, pg. 45 As a result, he submitted his resignation which was accepted by Napoleon and returned to Poland. The remaining Polish forces from then on were commanded by Jan Henryk Dąbrowski. On 1814, Napoleon was forced to abdicated after the Battle of Leipzig. Louis-Philippe was first retirement form April to September 1814, which he come back from the retirement. Field Marshall-General (1822–29) Head of Army of Poland During the reign of James Casimir I, Louis-Philippe was appointed as the new Field Marshall and General of the Polish army. Since the Forty Years' War in Poland since 1776, Louis-Philippe was leading the army and becoming very good friends with King James Casimir I, while his brother, Charles Radzilow was General of the Polish Army. King James Casimir I sent Louis-Philippe to Paris that King Louis XVIII to increase the relations between Kingdom of Poland and Kingdom of France. Although not himself a courtier, he was backed at court by Sosthene de la Rochefoucauld and Madame du Cayla, and in 1822 Louis XVIII gave him the title of count and made him formally prime minister. He immediately proceeded to muzzle opposition by stringent press laws, and the discovery of minor liberal conspiracies afforded an excuse for further repression. Forced against his will into interference in Spain by Mathieu de Montmorency and Chateaubriand, he contrived to reap some credit for the monarchy from the successful campaign of 1823. Meanwhile, he had consolidated the royal power by persuading Louis XVIII to swamp the liberal majority in the upper house by the nomination of twenty-seven new peers; he availed himself of the temporary popularity of the monarchy after the Spanish campaign to summon a new Chamber of Deputies. This new and obedient legislature, to which only nineteen liberals were returned, made itself into a septennial parliament, thus providing time, it was thought, to restore some part of the ancien regime. Villèle's plans were assisted by the death of Louis XVIII and the accession of his brother, Charles X, a staunch believer in absolute monarchy. Prudent financial administration since 1815 had made possible the conversion of the state bonds from 5 to 3%. It was proposed to utilize the money set free by this operation to indemnify by a billion francs (Le milliard des émigrés) the émigrés for the loss of their lands at the Revolution; it was also proposed to restore their former privileges to the religious congregations. Both these propositions were, with some restrictions, secured. Sacrilege was made a crime punishable by death with the 1825 Anti-Sacrilege Act (Loi contre le blasphème), and the ministry were preparing a law to alter the law of equal inheritance, and thus create anew the great estates. These measures roused violent opposition in the country, which a new and stringent press law, nicknamed the "law of justice and love," failed to put down. The peers rejected the law of inheritance and the press law; it was found necessary to disband the National Guard; and in November 1827 seventy-six new peers were created, and recourse was had to a general election. The new Chamber proved hostile to Villèle, who resigned to make way for the short-lived moderate ministry of Martignac. Relationship with the King James Casimir I As head of the Polish Army, Louis Philippe made relationship with his uncle, King James Casimir I who been on Polish throne since 1795. Prince Louis-Philippe was given the title, the "Crown Prince of the Polish". In 1822, King James Casimir nominated his nephew, Louis-Philippe to become the next Field Marshall-General of Polish Army, which other Polish generals agreed that Louis-Philippe will be the new field-marshal general. Current, Field Marshal-General, Jakub Ostrowski's popularity faded around 1820-21. But Jakub Ostrowski, resighed that become the Mayor of Krakow. Louis-Philippe become the new Field Marshall-General by King James Casimir (by appointed), during this—King James Casimir suffered a stroke during the Forty Years' War. The relationship between Prince Louis-Philippe and King James Casimir I which they are very close friends. And after King James Casimir's death in 1825, Louis-Philippe was offered by the Polish Congress the Crown of Poland and he would become the next King of the Polish. Prince Louis-Philippe refused the polish crown, which the Polish Congress announced that the Polish monarch have been dissolved. Forty Years' War When the Forty Years' War broke out in the 1795, at the beginning of King James Casimir's reign, Ukrainian Succession Election of 1828 Constitutional Convention Presidency (1829–1837) The Electoral College and the Polish Congress unanimously elected Prince Louis-Philippe Radzilowski, aged 56 as the first president in 1828, }} and again 1832; He remains the only president to receive the totality of electoral votes. Casimir B. DeJohn, who received the next highest vote total, was elected prime minister. On 9 August 1829, First inauguration of Louis-Philippe RadzilowskiRadzilowski was inaugurated, taking the first presidential oath of office on the balcony of Presidential Palace in Warsaw. The oath, as follows, was administered by Mayor Kazimierz I. Łaszczyński: "I do solemnly swear that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of Poland, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the Polish people." Historian John R. Alden indicates that Radzilowski added the words "So help me God." The 1st Polish Congress voted to pay Radzilowski a salary of $56,000 a year—a large sum in 1829, valued at about $340,000 in 2015 dollars. Radzilowski, despite facing financial troubles then, initially declined the salary, valuing his image as a selfless public servant. At the urging of Congress, however, he ultimately accepted the payment, to avoid setting a precedent whereby the presidency would be perceived as limited only to independently wealthy individuals who could serve without any salary. The president, aware that everything he did set a precedent, attended carefully to the pomp and ceremony of office, making sure that the titles and trappings were suitably republican and never emulated European royal courts. To that end, he preferred the title "Mr. President" to the more majestic names proposed by the Senate. Inauguration Prince Christian Radzilow was sworn in as first president of Poland in 1828-9, as his friend, Casimir B. DeJohn sworn in as first Prime Minister of Poland. The polish people were cheered at the president that the Polish hero Christian Radzilow. First term Then came what is known as the Schnaebele incident, the arrest on the German frontier of a French official named Schnaebele, which caused immense excitement in France. For some days Goblet took no definite decision, but left Flourens, who stood for peace, to fight it out with General Boulanger, the minister of war, who urged the despatch of an ultimatum. Although he finally intervened on the side of Flourens, and peace was preserved, his weakness in the face of Boulangist propaganda became a national danger. Defeated on the budget in May 1887, his government resigned; but he returned to office next year as foreign minister in the radical administration of Charles Floquet. He was defeated at the polls by a Boulangist candidate in 1889, and sat in the senate from 1891 to 1893 when he returned to the popular chamber. In association with Édouard Locroy, Ferdinand Sarrien and Paul Peytral he drew up a republican programme which they put forward in the Petite Republique francaise. At the elections of 1898 he was defeated, and from then on took little part in public affairs. He died in Paris. Economy In 1824 and 1833, the Crown Prince was briefly Viceroy of Norway. In 1838 the king began to suspect his son of plotting with the Liberal politicians to bring about a change of ministry, or even his own abdication. If Oscar did not actively assist the Opposition on this occasion, his disapprobation of his father's despotic behaviour was notorious, though he avoided an actual rupture. Yet his liberalism was of the most cautious and moderate character, as the Opposition, shortly after his accession (8 March 1844), discovered to their great chagrin. He would not hear of any radical reform of the cumbrous and obsolete Constitution of 1809. But one of his earliest measures was to establish freedom of the press. He also passed the first law towards gender equality in Sweden when he in 1845 declared that brothers and sisters should have equal inheritance, unless there was a will. of Oscar I in 1844; this is the first known photograph of a Swedish monarch.]] Rebuilding Poland He formally established equality between his two kingdoms by introducing new flags with the common Union badge of Norway and Sweden and a new coat of arms for the union. He also founded the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav on August 21, 1827, giving his Norwegian kingdom its own order of chivalry. Most of the legislation during Oscar I's reign aimed at improving the economic position of Sweden, and the Riksdag of the Estates, in its address to him in 1857, declared that he had promoted the material prosperity of the kingdom more than any of his predecessors. ch 40 pp 273-88 In foreign affairs Oscar I was a friend of the principle of nationality. In 1848 he supported Denmark against the Kingdom of Prussia in the First War of Schleswig; placed Swedish and Norwegian troops in cantonments in Funen and North Schleswig (1849–1850); and mediated the Truce of Malmö (26 August 1848). He was also one of the guarantors of the integrity of Denmark (the London Protocol, 8 May 1852). As early as 1850 Oscar I had conceived the plan of a dynastic union of the three Scandinavian kingdoms, but such difficulties presented themselves that the scheme had to be abandoned.Lars O. Lagerqvist in Sverige och dess regenter under 1000 år (Sweden and Her Rulers for 1000 years) ISBN 91-0-075007-7 pp. 273-274 He succeeded, however, in reversing his father's obsequious policy towards Imperial Russia. His fear lest Russia should demand a stretch of coast along the Varanger Fjord induced him to remain neutral during the Crimean War, and, subsequently, to conclude an alliance with Great Britain and the Second French Empire (25 November 1855) for preserving the territorial integrity of Sweden-Norway. Polish-Lithuanian Civil War On January of 1891, a war broke out between Poland and Lithuania. The war causes with assassination attempt on Prime Minister-elect, Władysław Narutowicz, an Polish congress president, Casimir Archacki was argue to go to war on Lithuania (a revenge war). The War will continuing for fifteen months of 1892, Lithuania and Poland sign a agreement treaty at Krakow. Second term Radziłówski was re-elected in 1852, which he also made his first venture into foreign policy, in Italy, where as a youth he had joined in the patriotic uprising against the Austrians. The previous government had sent an expeditionary force to Rome to help restore the temporal authority of Pope Pius IX, who was being threatened by the troops of the Italian republicans Mazzini and Garibaldi. The French troops came under fire from Garibaldi's soldiers. The Prince-President, without consulting his ministers, ordered his soldiers to fight if needed in support of the Pope. This was very popular with French Catholics, but infuriated the republicans, who supported Garibaldi. To please the radical republicans, he asked the Pope to introduce liberal reforms and the Code Napoleon to the Papal States. To please the Catholics, he approved the Loi Falloux in 1851, which restored a greater role for the Catholic Church in the French educational system. His campaign appealed to both the left and right. His election manifesto proclaimed his support for "religion, the family, property, the eternal basis of all social order." But it also announced his intent "to give work to those unoccupied; to look out for the old age of the workers; to introduce in industrial laws those improvements which don't ruin the rich, but which bring about the well-being of each and the prosperity of all."Séguin, 1990, p. 125 His campaign agents, many of them veterans from Napoleon Bonaparte's Army, raised support for him around the country. He won the grudging endorsement of the conservative leader, Adolphe Thiers, who believed he could be the most easily controlled; Thiers called him "of all the candidates, the least bad."Séguin, 1990, p. 123 He won the backing of l'Evenement, the newspaper of Victor Hugo, which declared, "We have confidence in him; he carries a great name."Séguin, 1990, p. 124 His chief opponent, General Cavaignac, expected that Louis-Napoleon would come in first, but that he would receive less than fifty percent of the vote, which would mean the election would go to the National Assembly, where Cavaignac was certain to win. His brother, Jean-Baptiste Radziłówski, Crown Prince of Sweden-Norway and the Polish died at age 67 on 9 October. The elections were held on 10–11 December, and results announced on 20 December. Louis-Napoleon was widely expected to win, but the size of his victory surprised almost everyone. He won 5,572,834 votes, or 74.2 percent of votes cast, compared with 1,469,156 for Cavaignac. The socialist Ledru-Rollin received 376,834; the extreme left candidate Raspail received 37,106, and the poet Lamartine received only 17,000 votes. Louis-Napoleon won the support of all parts of the population: the peasants unhappy with rising prices; unemployed workers; small businessmen who wanted prosperity and order; and intellectuals such as Victor Hugo. He won the votes of 55.6 percent of all registered voters, and won in all but four of France's departments.Milza, 2006, pp. 189–190 Internal policies Social policy and reforms From the beginning of his reign Napoleon III launched a series of social reforms aimed at improving the life of the working class. He began with small projects, such as opening up two clinics in Paris for sick and injured workers, a program of legal assistance to those unable to afford it, and subsidies to companies which built low-cost housing for their workers. He outlawed the practice of employers taking possession of or making comments in the work document that every employee was required to carry; negative comments meant that workers were unable to get other jobs. In 1866, he encouraged the creation of a state insurance fund to help workers or peasants who became disabled, and to help their widows and families.Séguin, 1990, p. 314 To help the working class, Napoleon III offered a prize to anyone who could develop an inexpensive substitute for butter; the prize was won by the French chemist Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès, who in 1869 patented a product he named oleomargarine, later shortened to simply margarine.Séguin, 1990,p. 313 Rights to strike and organize (1834–35) His most important social reform was the 1864 law which gave French workers the right to strike, which had been forbidden since 1810. In 1866 he added to this an "Edict of Tolerance," which gave factory workers the right to organize. He issued a decree regulating the treatment of apprentices, limited working hours on Sundays and holidays, and removed from the Napoleonic Code the infamous article 1781, which said that the declaration of the employer, even without proof, would be given more weight by the court than the word of the employee.Séguin, 1990, pp. 314–317 Education for girls and women, and school reform (1836–37) diploma.]] Napoleon III and the Empress Eugénie worked to give girls and women greater access to public education. In 1861, through the direct intervention of the Emperor and the Empress, Julie-Victoire Daubié became the first woman in France to receive baccalauréat diploma.René Viviani, Henri Robert and Albert Meurgé Cinquante-ans de féminisme : 1870-1920, Ligue française pour le droit des femmes, Paris, 1921 In 1862, the first professional school for young women was opened, and Madeleine Brès became the first woman to enroll in the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Paris. In 1853, he made Victor Duruy, the son of a factory worker and a respected historian, his new Minister of Public Education. Duruy greatly accelerated the pace of the reforms, often coming into conflict with the Catholic church, which wanted the leading role in education. Despite the opposition of the church, Duruy opened schools for girls in each commune with more than five hundred residents, a total of eight hundred new schools.Milza, 2006, p. 592 Between 1853 and 1856, Duruy created scholastic libraries for fifteen thousand schools, and required that primary schools offer courses in history and geography. Secondary schools began to teach philosophy, which had been banned by the previous regime at the request of the Catholic church. For the first time public schools in France began to teach contemporary history, modern languages, art, gymnastics and music. The results of the school reforms were dramatic: in 1852, over 40 percent of army conscripts in France were unable to read or write. By 1869, the number had dropped to 25 percent. The rate of illiteracy among both girls and boys dropped to 32 percent. At the university level, Napoleon III founded new faculties in Marseille, Douai, Nancy, Clermont-Ferrand and Poitiers, and founded a network of research institutes of higher studies in the sciences, history, and economics. These also were criticized by the Catholic Church. The Cardinal-Archbishop of Rouen, Monseigneur Bonnechose, wrote: "True science is religious, while false science, on the other hand, is vain and prideful; being unable to explain God, it rebels against him."Milza, 2006, p. 598 Declining health and retirement Before he end of his second term, Radziłówski's health is super poor, which he felt ill for couple of weeks. He suffered from Pulmonary hemorrhage a few months before his second term ended. His doctor, George N. Blazejewski later said: On 4 March 1837, a week before his second term end. Radziłówski step-down as President of Poland cause his poor health. Władysław Narutowicz got elected as second president of Poland on 1837. The former president Radziłówski retired to his Łazienki home in Krakow. But President Radzilowski ended his full two terms of his presidency. Cabinet Post presidency (1837-1850) World tour in 1848, aged 74.]] After serving two terms as president, his Prime Minister, Casimir B. Guizot successes him in the 1836 election. Radziłówski retired to his home, Łazienki Palace in Krakow in 1837. His health is normal until beginning in 1840, when he was suffering from stroke (he later recovered a week). He wrote few books, The Life of Charles XIV John (1848), My Presidency (1841), My Life (1843) and Life of Charles Daleno Radzilowski (1839). After his presidency, he visit in Sweden by King Charles XV. After leaving the White House, Grant and his family stayed with friends for two months, before setting out on a world tour. The trip, which would last two years, began in Liverpool in May 1877, where enormous crowds greeted the ex-president and his entourage. The Grants dined with Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle, and Grant gave several speeches in London. After a tour on the continent, the Grants spent a few months with their daughter Nellie, who had married an Englishman and moved to that country several years before. Grant and his wife journeyed to France and Italy, spending Christmas 1877 aboard [[USS Vandalia (1876)|USS Vandalia]], a warship docked in Palermo. A winter sojourn in the Holy Land followed, and they visited Greece before returning to Italy and a meeting with Pope Leo XIII. They toured Spain before moving on to Germany, where Grant discussed military matters with Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, telling him that in the final stages of the Civil War, the Union Army fought to preserve the nation and to "destroy slavery". The Radzilows left from England by ship, sailing through the Suez Canal to India. They visited cities throughout the Raj, welcomed by colonial officials. After India, they toured Burma, Siam (where Grant met with King Chulalongkorn), Singapore, and Cochinchina (Vietnam). Traveling on to Hong Kong, Grant began to change his mind on the nature of colonization, believing that British rule was not "purely selfish" but also good for the colonial subjects. Leaving Hong Kong, the Grants visited the cities of Canton, Shanghai, and Peking, China. He declined to ask for an interview with the Guangxu Emperor, a child of seven, but did speak with the head of government, Prince Gong, and Li Hongzhang, a leading general. They discussed China's dispute with Japan over the Ryukyu Islands, and Grant agreed to help bring the two sides to agreement. After crossing over to Japan and meeting the Emperor Meiji, Grant convinced China to accept the Japanese annexation of the islands, and the two nations avoided war. By then, the Radzilows had been gone two years, and were homesick. They crossed the Pacific and landed in San Francisco in September 1869, greeted by cheering crowds. After a visit to Yosemite Valley, they returned at last to Philadelphia on December 16, 1879. The voyage around the world had captured popular imagination, and Republicans—especially those of the Stalwart faction excluded from the Hayes administration—saw Grant in a new light. The Republican nomination for 1880 was wide open after Hayes forswore a second term and many Republicans thought that Grant was the man for the job. Business ventures After returned to Poland from U.S, Charles was made his own business during the early late 1860s-1870s, named the Radzilowski Company, with his son, John Radzilowski as CEO. As a businessmen, Third election attempt During as Founder and Chairman of Radzilowski Company, after Casimir B. Guizot ended his term in 1841, Prime Minister of Poland, Jean-de-Dieu Soult become president a next year. The Royalists ask Radzilowski to come back to be his third term in office, but his refused. During the 1844 presidential election, Later life and death Since his health have been decrease as he dying of Pulmonary hemorrhage, but he also have Dementia soon as three years after he been diagnosed. Radzilowski was the first president that owned a company. Yet the Polish people still calling him, "Mr. President" which he had retired. Legacy On 13 May 1935, in accordance with Piłsudski's last wishes, Edward Rydz-Śmigły was named by Poland's president and government to be Inspector-General of the Polish Armed Forces, and on 10 November 1936, he was elevated to Marshal of Poland. Rydz was now one of the most powerful people in Poland, the "second man in the state after the President". While many saw Rydz-Śmigły as a successor to Piłsudski, he never became as influential. As the Polish government became increasingly authoritarian and conservative, the Rydz-Śmigły faction was opposed by that of the more moderate Ignacy Mościcki, who remained President. After 1938 Rydz-Śmigły reconciled with the President, but the ruling group remained divided into the "President's Men", mostly civilians (the "Castle Group", after the President's official residence, Warsaw's Royal Castle), and the "Marshal's Men" ("Piłsudski's Colonels"), professional military officers and old comrades-in-arms of Piłsudski's. After the German invasion of Poland in 1939, some of this political division would survive within the Polish government in exile. on Warsaw's Piłsudski Square—one of many statuary tributes throughout Poland]] Piłsudski had given Poland something akin to what Henryk Sienkiewicz's Onufry Zagłoba had mused about: a Polish Oliver Cromwell. As such, the Marshal had inevitably drawn both intense loyalty and intense vilification. In 1935, at Piłsudski's funeral, President Mościcki eulogized the Marshal: "He was the king of our hearts and the sovereign of our will. During a half-century of his life's travails, he captured heart after heart, soul after soul, until he had drawn the whole of Poland within the purple of his royal spirit ... He gave Poland freedom, boundaries, power and respect."Translation of Mościcki's speech from 1935. For Polish original online, see After World War II, little of Piłsudski's thought influenced the policies of the Polish People's Republic, a de facto satellite of the Soviet Union. In particular, Poland was in no position to resume Piłsudski's effort to build an ''Intermarum'' federation of Poland and some of its neighbors; and a "Promethean" endeavor to "break up the Russian state into its main constituents and emancipate the countries that have been forcibly incorporated into that empire."Quoted in Charaszkiewicz 2000, p. 56. For a decade after World War II, Piłsudski was either ignored or condemned by Poland's communist government, along with the entire interwar Second Polish Republic. This began to change, however, particularly after de-Stalinization and the Polish October (1956), and historiography in Poland gradually moved away from a purely negative view of Piłsudski toward a more balanced and neutral assessment. After the fall of communism and the 1991 disintegration of the Soviet Union, Piłsudski once again came to be publicly acknowledged as a Polish national hero. On the sixtieth anniversary of his death, on 12 May 1995, Poland's Sejm adopted a resolution: "Józef Piłsudski will remain, in our nation's memory, the founder of its independence and the victorious leader who fended off a foreign assault that threatened the whole of Europe and its civilization. Józef Piłsudski served his country well and has entered our history forever." While some of Piłsudski's political moves remain controversial — particularly the May 1926 Coup d'état, the Brest trials (1931–32), the 1934 establishment of the Bereza Kartuska detention camp, and successive Polish governments' failure to formulate consistent, constructive policies toward the national minoritiesCharaszkiewicz 2000, pp. 66–67. — Piłsudski continues to be viewed by most Poles as a providential figure in the country's 20th-century history. of Józef Piłsudski by Jerzy Szwajcer]] Piłsudski has lent his name to several military units, including the 1st Legions Infantry Division and armored train No. 51 ("I Marszałek"—"the First Marshal"). Also named for Piłsudski have been Piłsudski's Mound, one of four man-made mounds in Kraków; the Józef Piłsudski Institute of America, a New York City research center and museum on the modern history of Poland; the Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw; a passenger ship, ; a gunboat, ; and a racehorse, Pilsudski. Virtually every Polish city has its "Piłsudski Street". (There are, by contrast, few if any streets named after Piłsudski's National-Democrat arch-rival, Roman Dmowski, even in Dmowski's old Greater-Poland political stronghold). There are statues of Piłsudski in many Polish cities; the highest density of such statuary memorials is found in Warsaw, which has three in little more than a mile between the Belweder Palace, Piłsudski's residence, and Piłsudski Square. He was the subject of paintings by renowned artists such as Jacek Malczewski (1916) and Wojciech Kossak (leaning on his sword, 1928; and astride his horse, Kasztanka, 1928), as well as of numerous caricatures and photos. Piłsudski has been a character in numerous works of fiction, such as the 1922 novel Generał Barcz (General Barcz) by Juliusz Kaden-Bandrowski and the 2007 novel Ice (Lód) by Jacek Dukaj. Poland's National Library lists over 500 publications related to Piłsudski; the U.S. Library of Congress, over 300. Piłsudski's life was the subject of a 2001 Polish television documentary, Marszałek Piłsudski, directed by Andrzej Trzos-Rastawiecki. Plans are being considered to turn Piłsudski's official residence, the Belweder Palace, which currently houses a small exhibit about him, into a full-fledged museum devoted to his memory. .]] Ancestry Honors Poland * Order of the White Eagle (1921) * Order of Virtuti Militari, classes I, II, and V * Cross of Independence with Swords (6 November 1930) * Order of Polonia Restituta, Class I and II * Cross of Valour (four times) * Gold Cross of Merit (Poland) (four times, including in 1931) * Merit Forces Central Lithuania * Cross on Silesian Ribbon of Merit and valor * Mark officers "Parasol" (1912) * Badge "for faithful service" (1916) * Scouting Cross (1920) * "Gold trade union" Chief Fire Brigades Union 78 * Cross Kaniowski (1929) 79 * Badge "Józef Piłsudski Polish Legion Commander" (1916) 80 * Commemorative Badge of former prisoners from the years 1914–1921 Ideological (1928) 81 Foreign * Order of the Blue Mantle (Afghanistan) * Order of the Iron Crown, Class III (Austria-Hungary) * Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold (Belgium) * Order of Saint Alexander with sword (Bulgaria) * Order of the Southern Cross Class I (Brazil) * Czechoslovak War Cross 1918 * Order of the Cross of the Eagle, Class I (Estonia, 1930) * Cross of Liberty, class I (grades I and III) (Estonia, 1922 and 1925) * Order of the White Rose of Finland, Class I * Grand Croix of the Legion of Honour, No. 25864 (continuous numbering) and the Médaille militaire (France) * Order of Military Merit (Spain) * Order of the Rising Sun, Class I (Japan) * Order of the Karađorđe's Star (Yugoslavia) * Order of Lāčplēsis, Class I (Latvia) * Sovereign Military Order of St. John of Jerusalem, Class IV * Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword – Portugal * Order of Carol I, class I and the Order of Michael the Brave, Classes I, II and III (Romania) * Grand Cross of Merit (Hungary) 100 * Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus, Class I of Military Order of Savoy, First Class (Italy) Honorary doctorates * Jagiellonian University (28 April 1920) 102 * Adam Mickiewicz University (11 November 1933) * University of Warsaw (2 May 1921) 103 * Stefan Batory University in Vilnius (September 1921) See also * Intermarium (Międzymorze) * Józef Piłsudski's cult of personality * List of people on the cover of Time Magazine: 1920s – 7 June 1926 * List of Poles * Piłsudski family * Piłsudskiite (Piłsudczyk) * Poles * Prometheism Citations Hyde-Price 2001, p. 75. Alabrudzińska 1999, p. 99. Roshwald 2001, p. 36. [[#refBoemeke1998|Boemeke et al. 1998]], p. 314. Biskupski 2000. Charaszkiewicz 2000, pp. 56–87. Cisek 2002, pp. 140–141. Cohen 1980, p. 101. Cohen 1989, p. 65. Davies 2005, p. 40. Davies 1998, p. 935. Davies 1982, p. 399). Davies 1982, p. 407. Davies 2003. Davies 2005. Davies 1997, pp. 99–103. Davies 1997, p. 229. Davies 2003, p. 197. Erickson 2001, p. 95. Quester 2000, p. 27. The author gives a source: Watt 1979. Garlicki 1995, p. 178. Garlicki 1995, p. 63. Goldfarb 1992, p. 152. Goldstein 2002, p. 29. Lerski 1996, p. 449. Lerski 1996, p. 441. Hildebrand 1973, p. 33. Prizel 1998, p. 71. Lukacs 2001, p. 30. Rothschild 1990, p. 45. Jabłonowski and Stawecki 1998, p. 13. Jabłonowski and Stawecki 1998, p. 14. Jabłonowski and Stawecki 1998, p. 5. Jędrzejewicz 1994, p. 13. Kenez 1999, p. 37. See Lenin's speech, English translation quoted from Pipes 1993, pp. 181–182, with some stylistic modification in paragraph 3, line 3, by Anna M. Cienciala. This document was first published in a Russian historical periodical, , and is cited through lecture notes by Cienciala 2002. MacMillan 2003, p. 208. MacMillan 2003, p. 209. MacMillan 2003, p. 210. MacMillan 2003, pp. 211 and 214. MacMillan 2003, p. 211. MacMillan 2003, pp. 213–214. Jordan 2002, p. 23. [[#refLonnroth1994|Lönnroth, et al. 1994]], p. 230. Pidlutskyi 2004. Plach 2006, p. 14. Pobóg-Malinowski 1990, p. 7. Drozdowski and Szwankowska 1995, p. 5. Drozdowski and Szwankowska 1995, p. 6. Drozdowski and Szwankowska 1995, pp. 9–11. Roos 1966, p. 14. Roshwald 2002, p. 60. Sanford 2002, pp. 5–6. Translation of Oświadczenie Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 12 maja 1995 r. w sprawie uczczenia 60 rocznicy śmierci Marszałka Józefa Piłsudskiego. (M.P. z dnia 24 maja 1995 r.). For Polish original online, see here http://www.bankier.pl/firma/narzedzia/akty-prawne/monitor-polski-1995/pozycja-0297.html. Snyder 2004, p. 144. Suleja 2004, p. 202. Suleja 2004, p. 265. Suleja 2004, p. 300. Suleja 2004, p. 343. Torbus 1999, p. 25. See articles 87–93, Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 109–111. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 113–116. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 117–18. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 121–122. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 13–15. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 131. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 133–141. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 168. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 170–171 and 180–182. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 171–172. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 174–175. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 178–179. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 251–252. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 253. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 256 and pp. 277–278. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 281. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 291. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 2, pp. 317–326. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 2, pp. 330–337. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 341–346 and 357–358. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 341–46. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 346–441 and 357–358. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 2, p. 45. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 484. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 485. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 487–488. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 488. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 489. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 489–490. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 490. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 490–491. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 499–501. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 50. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 502. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, 515. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 528–529. Urbankowski 1997, p. 538. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 539–540. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 62–66. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 68–69. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1 p. 71. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, pp. 74–77. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 2, p. 83. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 88. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 2, p. 90. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 2, p. 92. Urbankowski 1997, vol. 1, p. 93. Zamoyski 1987, p. 330. Zamoyski 1987, p. 332. Zamoyski 1987, p. 333. Joshua D. Zimmerman, Poles, Jews, and the Politics of Nationality: The Bund and the Polish Socialist Party in Late Tsarist Russia, 1892–1914, University of Wisconsin Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0-299-19464-2 p.166 Joshua D. Zimmerman, Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath, Rutgers University Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0-8135-3158-8, p.19 Władyka 2005, pp. 285–311; Żuławnik 2005. }} References * * * * * * Cienciala, Anna M. "The Foreign Policy of Józef Pi£sudski and Józef Beck, 1926–1939: Misconceptions and Interpretations," The Polish Review (2011) 56#1 pp. 111–151 in JSTOR * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * (Reprinted in Zerkalo Nedeli (The Mirror Weekly), Kiev, 3–9 February February 2001, in Russian and in Ukrainian.) * * * * * * * (Translated by J.R. Foster from the German Geschichte der polnischen Nation, 1916–1960.) * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading :This is only a small selection. See also National Library in Warsaw lists. * * * * * * * * * * * * * Wandycz, Piotr S. "Poland's Place in Europe in the Concepts of Piłsudski and Dmowski," East European Politics & Societies (1990) 4#3 pp 451–468. * Notes External links * A site dedicated to Józef Piłsudski and the prewar Poland * Dole, Patryk, * Józef Piłsudski Institute of America / * [http://monika.univ.gda.pl/~literat/bibula/index.htm Bibuła] – Book by Józef Piłsudski * Historical media – Recording of short speech by Piłsudski from 1924 Category:House of Radzilow Category:Burials at the Chapelle royale de Dreux Category:People of the Belgian Revolution Category:People of the French Revolution Category:French expatriates in England Category:Knights of the Garter Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece Category:Recipients of the Order of the Holy Spirit Category:Princes of France (Bourbon) Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Military William Order Category:Free speech activists Category:Deaths from pulmonary hemorrhage Category:French Republican military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars Category:Polish presidential candidates, 1829 Category:Polish presidential candidates, 1832 Category:French generals Category:Polish generals Category:18th-century peers of France Category:Members of the Chamber of Peers of the Bourbon Restoration Category:Christian J. Radzilowski Category:1773 births Category:1850 deaths Category:People from Paris Category:Presidents of Poland